Boethius, The Consolation of Philosophy

The Consolation of Philosophy, Boethius, transl. Richard Green, Macmillan, New York, 1962

The subject of the work is human happiness and the possibility of achieving it in the midst of the suffering and disappointment which play so large a part in every man’s experience. ix

Boethius was born about 480 into the distinguished Roman family of the Anicii. After the death of his father, who had been consul in 487, the boy was adopted by the even more distinguished Symmachus, and later married his guardian’s daughter Rusticiana. x

Early in his career Boethius learned Greek and undertook to translate and comment on all the works of Aristotle and Plato with the intention of demonstrating their essential agreement. xi

He became Consul in 510, when he was about thirty, and thereafter was closely indentified with the interests of the Senate. xii

The events which brought about the ruin of this extraordinary scholar and statesman are of special interest, since they are the immediate occasion of The Consolation. In 523, when Boethius was in his early forties and at the peak of his fortune and power, he suffered a sudden reversal of fortune which led to disgrace, exile, and finally to execution. xii

Augustine…The effects of the hundred years which separate these early Christian writers can be observed in their attitudes toward classical philosophy. For Augustine, the late Roman version of Platonism was still a powerful antagonist which drove him to polemical criticism of those aspects which he found incompatible with Biblical revelation, and to a rather cautious praise of those doctorines which he found appropriate and useful. He was primarily a theologian devoted to the formation of Christian doctrine, and moral philosophy was only a part of his enterprise. Historical circumstances made the success of his undertaking almost immediate, so that a hundred years later Boethius could write as a Christian philosopher and classical scholar without apology or polemic… xvi

Augustine observed that temporal prosperity and adversity are not signs of demonic intervention in the lives of men, nor of the favor or disfavor of the true God; they are simply decreed and permitted by the One whose wisdom is perfect, and who can will only good for men, but whose judgments cannot be fully comprehended and therefore should not be complained of. He scoffs at the pagan worship of a blind goddess dispensing adversity and prosperity at random… xvii

Poetry, which was once the glory of my happy and flourishing youth, is still my comfort in this misery of my old age. Book I, Poem 1

Death, happy to men when she does not intrude in the sweet years, but comes when often called in sorrow, turns a deaf ear to the wretched and cruelly refuses to close weeping eyes. Book I, Poem 1

Her clothing was made of the most delicate threads, and by the most exquisite workmanship; it had—as she afterwards told me—been woven by her own hands into an everlasting fabric. Her clothes had been darkened in color somewhat by neglect and the passage of time, as happens to pictures exposed to smoke…This robe had been torn, however, by the hands of violent men, who had ripped away what they could. Book I, Prose 1

When I looked at her closely, I saw that she was Philosophy, my nurse, in whose house I had lived from my youth. “Mistress of all virtues,” I said, “why have you come, leaving the arc of heaven, to this lonely desert of our exile? Are you a prisoner, too, charged as I am with false accusations?” / She answered, “How could I desert my child, and not share with you the burden of sorrow you carry, a burden caused by hatred of my name? Book I, Prose 3

…the inept schools of Epicureans, Stoics, and others, each seeking its own interests, tried to seal the inheritance of Socrates and to possess me (in spite of my protests and struggles), as though I were the spoils of their quarreling. They tore this robe which I had woven with my own hands and, having ripped off some little pieces of it, went away supposing that they possessed me wholly. Then, when traces of my garments were seen on some of them, they were rashly thought to be my friends… Book I, Prose 3

Compare this prison with my library at home which you chose as your own and in which you often discussed with me the knowledge of human and divine things. Did I look like this? Was I dressed this way when I studied nature’s mysteries with you… Book I, Prose 3

You govern all things, each according to its destined purpose. Human acts alone, O Ruler of All, You refuse to restrain within just bounds. Why should uncertain Fortune control our lives? Book I, Poem 5

You have not been driven out of your homeland; you have willfully wandered away…For if you can remember your true country you know that it is not, as Athens once was, ruled by many persons; rather ‘it has one ruler and one king,’ who rejoices in the presence of citizens, not in their expulsion. To be governed by his power and subject to his laws is the greatest liberty. Book I, Prose 5

But because you are so upset by sorrow and anger, and so blown about by the tumult of your feelings, you are not now in the right frame of mind to take strong medicine. For the time being, then, I shall use more gentle treatment… Book I, Prose 5

“How then,” she went on, “is it possible that you can know the origin of all things and still be ignorant of their purpose? But this is the usual result of anxiety; it can change a man, but it cannot break him and cannot destroy him. Book I, Prose 6

Because you are ignorant of the purpose of things, you think that stupid and evil men are powerful and happy. Book I, Prose 6

Fortune…If you will recall her nature and habits, you will be convinced that you had nothing of much value when she was with you and you have not lost anything now that she is gone. Book II, Prose 1

Really, the misfortunes which are now such a cause of grief ought to be reasons for tranquility. For now she ahs deserted you, and no man can ever be secure until he has been forsaken by Fortune. Book II, Prose 1

The double certainty of loss and consequent misery should prevent both the fear of her threats and the desire of her favors. Book II, Prose 1

You may argue your case against me before any judge; and if you can prove that riches and honors really belong to any mortal man, I will freely concede your ownership of the things you ask for. Book II, Prose 2

But the memory of it is what causes me most pain; for in the midst of adversity, the worst misfortune of all is to have once been happy.” Book II, Prose 4

Anxiety is the necessary condition of human happiness since happiness is never completely and never permanently kept. Book II, Prose 4

“Besides, those most blessed are often the most sensitive; unless everything works out perfectly, they are impatient at disappointment and shattered by quite trivial things. Book II, Prose 4

If you will consider carefully the following argument, you will have to admit that happiness cannot depend on things which are uncertain. If happiness is the highest good of rational natures, and if nothing which can be lost can be a supreme good (because it is obviously less good than that which cannot be lost), then clearly unstable Fortune cannot pretend to bring happiness…how can this present life make us happy when its end cannot make us unhappy? Book II, Prose 4

Riches, then, are miserable and troublesome: they cannot be fully possessed by many people, and they cannot be acquired by some without loss to others. Book II, Prose 5

If they are beautiful by nature, what is that to you? They would be pleasing to you even if they belonged to someone else. They are not precious because you have them; you desire to have them because they seem precious…What an upside-down state of affairs when a man who is divine by his gift of reason thinks his excellence depends on the possession of lifeless bric-a-brac! Book II, Prose 5

Thus, honor is not paid to virtuous men because of their rank; on the contrary, it is paid to rank because of the virtue of those holding it. Book II, Prose 6

Good fortune enslaves the mind of good men with the beauty of the specious goods which they enjoy; but bad fortune frees them by making them see the fragile nature of happiness. Book II, Prose 8

Others measure the good in terms of gaiety and enjoyment; they think that the greatest happiness is found in pleasure…Toward such false goods, and others like them, men direct their actions and desires…or they want a wife and children because they regard them as sources of pleasure…whatever anyone desires beyond all else, he regards as the highest good. And, since we have defined the highest good as happiness, everyone thinks that the condition which he wants more than anything else must constitute happiness. Book III, Prose 1

The whole race of men on this earth springs from one stock. There is one Father of all things; One alone provides for all. He gave Phoebus his rays, the moon its horns. To the earth He gave men, to the sky the stars. He clothed with bodies the souls He brought from heaven. / “Thus, all men come from noble origin. Why then boast of your ancestors? If you consider your beginning, and God your Maker, no one is base unless he deserts his birthright and makes himself a slave to vice. Book III, Poem 6

What pleasure there may be in these appetites I do not know, but they end in misery as anyone knows who is willing to recall his own lusts. Book III, Prose 7

And if, as Aristotle says, men had the eyes of Lynceus and could see through stone walls, would they not find the superficially beautiful body of Alcibiades to be most vile upon seeing his entrails? It is not your nature which makes you seem fair but the weak eyes of those who look at you. You may esteem your bodily qualities as highly as you like as long as you admit that these things you admire so much can be destroyed by the trifling heat of a three-day fever. Book III, Prose 8

“Alas, what ignorance drives miserable men along crooked path! You do not look for gold in the green trees, nor for jewels hanging on the vine; you do not set your nets nor, if you want to hunt deer, do you seek them along the Tyrenean seas. On the contrary, men are skilled in knowing the hidden caves in the sea, and in knowing where white pearls and scarlet dye are found; they know what beaches are rich in various kinds of fish. / “But, when it comes to the location of the good which they desire, they are blind and ignorant. They dig the earth in search of the good which soars above the star-filled heavens. Prose III, Poem 8

“Human depravity, then, has broken into fragments that which is by nature one and simple; men try to grasp part of a thing which has no parts and so get neither the part, which does not exist, nor the whole, which they do not seek.” Book III, Prose 9

“You bind the elements in harmony so that cold and heat, dry and wet are joined, and the purer fire does not fly up through the air, nor the earth sink beneath the weight of water. Book III, Poem 9

Now, no one can deny that something exists which is a kind of fountain of all goodness; for everything which is found to be imperfect shows its imperfection by the lack of some perfection. It follows that if something is found to be imperfect in its kind, there must necessarily be something of that same kind which is perfect. Book III, Prose 10

For all perfect things have been shown to come before less perfect ones…But we have already established that perfect good is true happiness; therefore it follows that true happiness has its dwelling in the most high God.”

“Nothing that the river Tagus with its golden shores can give, nor the Hermus with its jeweled banks, the Indus of the torrid zone, gleaming with green and white stones, none of these can clear man’s vision. Instead, they hide blind souls in their shadows. / “Whatever pleases and excites your mind here, Earth has prepared in her deep caves. The shining light which rules and animates the heavens avoids the darks ruins of the soul. Whoever can see this light will discount even the bright rays of Phoebus.” Book III, Poem 10

“I have already proved that the things which most people want are not the true and perfect good since they differ from one another; and, since one or the other is always missing, they cannot proide full and perfect good. Book III, Prose 11

…the very form of the good is the essence of God and of happiness; and you said further that unity is identical with the good which is sought by everything in nature. You also affirmed that God rules the universe by the exercise of His goodness, that all things willingly obey Him, and that there is no evil in nature. Book III, Prose 11

Orpheus looked back at Eurydice, lost her, and died. / “This fable applies to all of you who seek to raise your minds to sovereign day. For whoever is conquered and turns his eyes to the pit of hell, looking into the inferno, loses all the excellence he has gained.” Book III, Poem 12

…the good are always powerful and the evil always weak and futile, that vice never goes unpunished nor virtue unrewarded… Book IV, Prose 1

…every intention of the human will directed toward happiness, however various its inclination may be?” / “I remember that to have been proved.” / “And do you also recall that happiness is the good, so that everyone who seeks happiness also desires the good?”… “Therefore, all men, good and bad, have the same purpose in striving to obtain the good.” / “That follows,” I agreed. / “But it is also true that men become good by obtaining the good.” / “Yes.” / “So good men obtain what they desire.” / “That seems to be true.” / “But evil men would not be evil if they obtained the good they seek.” Book IV, Prose 2

Well, what greater weakness is there than the blindness of ignorance? Or do they know what they should seek, but are driven astray by lust? If so, they are made weak by intemperance and cannot overcome their vices. Or, do they knowingly and willfully desert the good and turn to vice? Anyone acting that way loses not only his strength but his very being, since to forsake the common goal of all existence is to forsake existence itself. / “Perhaps it may strike some as strange to say that evil men do not exist. Book IV, Prose 2

…the wicked are necessarily more unhappy when they have their way than they would be if they could not do what they wanted to do. If it is bad to desire evil, it is worse to be able to accomplish it…contains its own punishment. Book IV, Prose 4

“In this way, wise men could abolish hatred; for no one but a fool would hate good men, and hating evil men would make no sense. Viciousness is a kind of disease of the soul, like illness in the body. And if sickness of the body is not something we hate, but rather regard with sympathy… Book IV, Prose 4

“Why do you whip yourselves to frenzy, and ever seek your fate by self-destruction? If you look for death, she stands nearby of her own accord… Book IV, Poem 4

Since He often gives joy to the good and bitterness to the wicked, but on the other hand often reverses this dispensation, how can all this be distinguished from accidental chance unless we understand the cause of it?” / “It is no wonder,” Philosophy answered, “that a situation should seem random and confused when its principle of order is not understood. But, although you do not know why things are as they are, still you cannot doubt that in a world ruled by a good Governor all things do happen justly. Book IV, Prose 5

Just as the craftsman conceives in his mind the form of the thing he intends to make, and then sets about making it by producing in successive temporal acts that which was simply present in his mind, so God by his Providence simply and unchangeably disposes all things that are to be done, even though the things themselves are worked out by Fate in many ways and in the process of time. Book IV, Prose 6

Then man whom you think most just and honorable may seem quite otherwise to the Providence which knows all thigns…Therefore, when you see something happen here contrary to your ideas of what is right, it is your opinion and expectation which is confused, while the order in things themselves is right. Book IV, Prose 6

Therefore God in his wise dispensation spares the man who cannot stand suffering. Another man who is perfect in all virtues, holy, and dear to God, may be spared even bodily sickness because Providence judges it wrong for him to be touched by any adversity at all…To others, Providence gives a mixture of prosperity and adversity according to the disposition of their souls; she gives trouble to some whom too much luxury might spoil; others she tests with hardships in order to strengthen their virtues by the exercise of patience. Book IV, Prose 6

…the prosperity of the wicked is a powerful argument for the good, because they see how they ought to evaluate the kind of good fortune which the wicked so often enjoy. Still another good purpose may be served by the prosperity of the wicked man: if his nature is so reckless and violent that poverty might drive him to crime, Providence may cure this morbid tendency by making him wealthy. Book IV, Prose 6

“ ‘But it is hard for me to recount all this as if I were a God,’ [Homer, Iliad XII. 176] for it is not fitting for men to understand intellectually or to explain verbally all the dispositions of the divine work…since He carefully preserves everything which He made in his own likeness, He excludes by fatal necessity all evil from the bounds of his state. Book IV, Prose 6

That all fortune is good. Book IV, Prose 7

“Since all fortune, whether sweet or bitter, has as its purpose the reward or trial of good men or the correction and punishment of the wicked, it must be good because it is clearly either just or useful.” Book IV, Prose 7

Free will…Human souls, however, are more free while they are engaged in contemplation of the divine mind, and less free when they are joined to bodies, and still less free when they are bound by earthly fetters. They are in utter slavery when they lose possession of their reason and give themselves wholly to vice. For when they turn away their eyes from the light of supreme truth to mean and dark things, they are blinded by a cloud of ignorance and obsessed by vicious passions. Book V, Prose 1

…nothing whatever can be done or even desired without its being known beforehand by the infallible Providence of God. Book V, Prose 3

…let us suppose that there is no foreknowledge. Then would the things which are done by free will be bound by necessity in this respect?” / “Not at all.” / “Then, let us suppose that foreknowledge exists but imposes no necessity on things. The same independence and absolute freedom of will would remain. Book V, Prose 4

“How varied are the shapes of living things on earth! Some there are with bodies stretched out, crawling through the dust, spending their strength in an unbroken furrow; some soar in the air, beating the wind with light wings, floating in easy flight along tracks of air. Some walk along the ground through woods and across green fields. All these, you observe, differ in their varied forms, but their faces look down and cause their senses to grow sluggish. / “The human race alone lifts its head to heaven and stands erect, despising the earth. Man’s figure teaches, unless folly has bound you to the earth, that you who look upward with your head held high should also raise your soul to sublime things, lest while your body is raised above the earth, your mind should sink to the ground under its burden. Book V, Poem 5